TFY Chapter 11 INDUCTIVE REASONING AND INDUCTIVE FALLACIES

CHAPTER SUMMARY INDUCTIVE REASONING AND INDUCTIVE FALLACIES

Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
The five basic rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on statistical samplings are as follows:, the greater is its probability of being
a. The greater the size of the sample, the greater is its probability of being representative of the whole of a class.
b. A sampling must be representative in order to reliable result.
c. One counter example can refute a generalization arrived at through inductive reasoning.
d. Statistical evidence should be offered in sufficient detail for verification.
e. When evaluating the result of polls, it is important to examine both the polling agency and the polling question for bias.

TFY CHAPTER 12 DEDUCTIVE REASONING: HOW DO I REASON FROM PREMISE?

CHAPTER SUMMARY DEDUCTIVE REASONING: HOW DO I REASON FROM PREMISES?

Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.
Logic has its own technical vocabulary.

TFY CHAPTER 10 FALLACIES: WHAT'S FAULTY ARGUMENT?

CHAPTER SUMMARY FALLACIES: WHAT’S FAULTY ARGUMENT?


Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in a argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are word that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed. Circular reasoning assumes what it is supposed to prove.

TFY CHAPTER 9 ARGUMENT: WHAT'S A GOOD ARGUMENT?

CHAPTER SUMMARY

ARGUMENT: WHAT’S A GOOD ARGUMENT

The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any time during an argument or not at all.
Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context. Once the argument’s main conclusion is uncovered, the reasons offered in support becomes clear.
Arguments state and defend a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as though they were arguments.
An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issue are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question. The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a. Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b. Are there any hidden assumptions?
c. Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d. Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e. Is any important importation missing?
f. Is any information false or contradictory?

TFY CHAPTER 8 VIEWPOINTS: WHAT'S THE FILTER?

TFY CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY

VIEWPOINTS: WHAT’S THE FILTER?

Critical thinking means leaning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
Viewpoints-like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations-can either be consciously or unconsciously assumed.
We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions made by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.

TFY Chapter 7 Evalutions

TFY Chapter 7 Evaluations
Summary

1. Evaluations make judgments about worth on the basis of standards that may be conscious or unconscious.

2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instead of last may be problematical when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.

3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.

5. Feelings and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.

6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluations since the affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.

7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we recognize how those connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not choose to accept the opinions they contain.

8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make associations with products and purchase them.

9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.

10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the influence of propaganda.

TFY Chapter 6 Opinions

TFY CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY

OPINIONS: WHAT’S BELIEVED?

Opinions can be well substantiated or not. They can be based either on reason or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsible opinion and that we distinguish statement based on evidence from statements based solely on feelings.
People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
Expert opinion is based on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not the same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same safeguards as public elections.
Opinion should not be confused with facts.
Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.